Yves right here. This put up how inattentive the mainstream media is to spiritual and cultural that play into geopolitics. Or to the extent that they benefit a point out, they’re force-fitted into simplistic stereotypes. Right here, the truth that Turkiye was just about by no means set to be admitted to the EU relies on antipathy for Muslims and brown folks typically, aided and abetted by shoehorning Muslims into Sunni or Shia packing containers. So far as I can inform, the historical past and present standing of the massive Alevi sect isn’t even thought-about in these discussions. In fashionable period, the Alevis fared comparatively nicely in Turkiye when secularism was on the rise, however like (however much less visibly to many of the West) the Alevis face discrimination, which might have needed to be addressed had been Turkiye to pursue EU membership.
Admittedly because the put up exhibits, Turkiye residents on the entire are usually not so scorching on the EU both, however maybe much less in-your-face dislike might need generated higher reciprocal feeling in Turkiye.
By Dr. Vladislav B. Sotirovic, Ex-College Professor, Analysis Fellow on the Centre for Geostrategic Research, Belgrade, Serbia
Introduction
So far, not as soon as expressed by Turkiye’s President R. T. Erdoğan a chance to prepare a nationwide referendum on Turkish membership to the European Union (the EU) opened many questions of various nature adopted by previous and new issues.
A present European political concern is mirrored in lots of controversial points and a type of an important is dealing with the EU about whether or not or to not settle for Turkiye as a full member state (being a candidate state since 1999). Turkiye is, on one hand, ruled as a secular democracy by average Islamic political leaders, searching for to play a task of the bridge between the Center East and Europe. Nonetheless, Turkiye is, on different palms, virtually 100% Muslim nation with a rising tide of Islamic radicalism (particularly for the reason that 2023 Israeli aggression on Gaza and ethnic cleaning of the Gazan Palestinians), surrounded with the neighbors with an analogous downside.
There are two basic arguments by all of those that are opposing Turkish admission to the EU: 1) Muslim Turkish residents (70 million) won’t ever be correctly built-in into the European setting that’s predominantly Christian; and a couple of) Within the case of Turkish accession, historic clashes between the (Ottoman) Turks and European Christians are going to be revived. Right here we’ll refer solely to 1 assertion in opposition to Turkish accession: it “would imply the top of Europe” (former French President Valéry Giscard d’Estaing) – an announcement which clearly displays the opinion by 80% of Europeans polled in 2009 that Turkiye’s admission to the EU wouldn’t be a very good factor. On the similar time, there are solely 32% of Turkish residents who had a positive opinion of the EU and, subsequently, the admission course of, for which formal and strict negotiations started already in 2005, could be very prone to be lastly abortive.
Islamic Fundamentalism and Turkiye’s Admission to the EU
The query of Turkish admission to the EU is by nearly all of Europeans seen by the glass of Islamic fundamentalism as probably the most severe challenges to the European stability and above all id that’s based totally on the Christian values and custom. Islamic fundamentalism is known as an try to undermine present state practices for the very cause that militant Muslims (like ISIS/ISIL/DAESH) are combating to re-establish the medieval Islamic Caliphate and the institution of theocratic authority over the worldwide Islamic group – the Umma. Nonetheless, spiritual fundamentalism first got here to the eye of the Western a part of the worldwide group in 1979 when a pro-American absolute monarchy was modified with a Shia (Shiia) Muslim anti-American semi-theocracy in Iran. In different phrases, Iranian Shia Muslim clerics, who had been on a regular basis the non secular leaders of the Iranians, turned now their political leaders too. The Iranian Islamic revolution of 1979 prompted prospects of comparable uprisings in different Muslim societies adopted by pre-emptive actions in opposition to them by different governments.
What will be probably the most harmful state of affairs for Turkiye from the European perspective if the accession negotiations failed is, in all probability, Turkish flip in direction of the Muslim world adopted by rising affect of Islamic fundamentalism which will be correctly managed by the EU if Turkiye would change into a member state of the membership? That’s, in all probability, an important “safety” issue to notice concerning the EU-Turkish relations and accession negotiations. Specifically, following the 9/11 terror assaults (on Washington and New York), it was turning into an increasing number of clear that it was higher to have (Islamic) Turkiye contained in the EU quite than as part of an anti-Western bloc of Muslim states.
Basically, for the Western governments and particularly for the US and Israeli administrations, Shia Muslims turned seen after the 1979 Iranian Islamic (Shia) revolution as probably the most potential Islamic fundamentalists and the spiritual terrorists. Subsequently, the oppression of Shia minorities by the Sunni majorities in a number of Muslim nations are intentionally not recorded and criticized by the Western governments. The case of Alevi folks in Turkiye is likely one of the greatest examples of such coverage. Nonetheless, on the similar time, the EU administration is paying a full consideration to the Kurdish query in Turkiye even requiring the popularity of the Kurds by the Turkish authorities as an ethnocultural minority (as totally different from the ethnic Turks). Why the Alevi individuals are on this respect discriminated by the EU’s minority coverage in Turkiye? The reply is as a result of the Kurds are Sunni Muslims however Alevis are thought-about as a Turkish faction of (militant) Shia Muslim group throughout the Islamic world.
Within the subsequent paragraphs, I wish to put extra lights on the query who’re Alevi folks and what’s Alevism as a spiritual id considering the truth that faith, undoubtedly, has change into more and more vital in each the research and observe of each worldwide relations and world politics. We now have to maintain additionally in our minds that spiritual id was predominant compared to nationwide or ethnic identities for a number of centuries being the essential reason for political conflicts in lots of circumstances.
What’s Alevism?
The Alevi individuals are these Muslims who imagine in Alevism that’s, in truth, a sect or type of Islam. Particularly in Turkiye, Alevism is a second widespread sect of Islam. The variety of Alevi folks is between 10−15 million. A reputation of the sect comes from the time period Alevi what means “the follower of Ali”. Some specialists in Islamic research declare that Alevism is a department of Shi’ism (Shia Islam), however, as a matter of truth, the Alevi Umma isn’t homogeneous and Alevism can’t be understood with out one other Islamic sect – Bektashism. Nonetheless, Alevi tradition produced many poets and people songs alongside with the truth that Alevi individuals are experiencing many every-day life issues to dwell based on their perception in Islam.
The Alevis (Turkish: Aleviler or Alevilik; Kurdish: Elewî) are a spiritual, sub-ethnic, and cultural group in Turkiye representing on the similar time the most important sect of Islam in Turkiye. Alevism is a approach of Islamic mysticism or Sufism that’s believing in a single God by accepting Muhammad as a Prophet, and the Holy Qur’ān. Alevi folks loves Ehlibeyt – the household of Prophet Muhammad-, unifying prayer and supplication, prayer of their language, to want free individual as a substitute of Umma (Muslim group), to want to like God as a substitute of God’s worry, to beat Shariareaching to actual world, believing to Holy Qur’ān’s real as a substitute of shave. Alevism has discovered its remedy in human love; they imagine that individuals are immortal as a result of an individual is manifested by God. Ladies and men are praying collectively, of their language, with their music that’s performed by way of bağlama, with semah. Alevism is an entirety of beliefs that will depend on Islam’s guidelines which primarily based on the Holy Qur’ān, based on Muhammad’s instructions; by deciphering Islam with common dimension, it opens new doorways to earth folks. The Alevi system of perception is Islamic with a triplet composed by Allah, Muhammad, and Ali.
There are a lot of sturdy arguments in regards to the relationship between Alevism and Shi’ism. Some researchers say that Alevism is a type of Shi’ism however a few of them say that Alevism is sectarian. We now have to understand that Shi’ism is a second widespread kind of Islam on the planet after Sunnism. This can be a department of Islam which known as because the Get together of Ali given that it acknowledges Ali’s declare to succeed his cousin and father-in-law, the Prophet Muhammad, because the non secular chief of Islam in the course of the first civil conflict within the Islamic world (656−661). In many of the Islamic nations the Sunnis are in majority, however the Shi’ites comprise some 80 million believers, or, in different phrases, round 13% out of all world’s Muslims. The Shi’ites are predominant in three nations: Iran, Iraq and the United Arab Emirates. Nonetheless, Alevism can’t be understood as similar to Sufism that’s the mystical facet of Islam which arose as a response to strict spiritual orthodoxy. Sufis search private union with God and their Christian Orthodox counterparts within the Center Ages had been the Bogumils.
Undoubtedly, Alevism has some related points with Shi’ism however, on the similar time, there are a whole lot of variations regarding a basic practising of Islam. Nonetheless, in some Western literature, Alevism is offered as a department of Shi’ism, or extra particularly, as a Turk or Ottoman approach of Shi’ism.
Break up Inside Muslims
We now have to bear in mind on this place that the Islamic growth within the 7th and eightth centuries was accompanied by political conflicts which adopted the demise of the Prophet Muhammad, and the query of who’s entitled to succeed him is splitting up the Muslim world up in the present day. In different phrases, when the Prophet died, a caliph (successor) was chosen to rule all Muslims. Nonetheless, because the caliph lacked prophetic authority, he loved secular energy however not an authority in spiritual doctrine. The primary caliph was Abu Bakr who is taken into account collectively together with his three successors because the “rightly guided” (or orthodox) caliphs. They dominated based on the Quran and the practices of the Prophet, however, thereafter, Islam turned break up up into two antagonistic branches: Sunni and Shia.
The Sunni-Shia division principally began when Ali ibn Abi Talib (599−661), Muhammad’s son-in-law and inheritor, assumed the Caliphate after the homicide of his predecessor, Uthman (574−656). The Civil conflict was ended with the defeat of Ali with the victory of Uthman’s cousin and governor of Damascus, Mu’awiya Ummayad (602−680) after the Battle of Suffin. Nonetheless, these Muslims (just like the Alevi folks, for example) who claimed that Ali was the rightful calif took the identify of Shiat Ali – the “Partisans of Ali”. They imagine that Ali was the final official caliph and, subsequently, the Caliphate ought to move down solely to those that are direct descendants of the Prophet Muhammad by his daughter, Fatima, and Ali, her husband. Ali’s son, Hussein (626−680), claimed the Caliphate, however the Ummayads killed him collectively together with his followers on the Battle of Karbala in 680. This metropolis, in the present day in up to date Iraq, is the holiest of all websites for Shia Muslims (Shi’ism). Regardless to the truth that the Prophet’s Muhammad’s household line was led to 873, the Shia Muslims imagine that the final Muhammad’s descendant didn’t die as he’s quite “hidden” and can return. These primary Shia interpretations of the historical past of Islam are adopted by the Alevi folks and, subsequently, many researchers are merely contemplating Alevism as a faction of the Shi’ism.
The dominant department of Islam is Sunni. The Sunni Muslims, in a different way to their Shia opponents, are usually not demanding that the caliph needs to be of a direct descendant of the Prophet Muhammad. They’re additionally accepting the Arabic tribal customs in authorities. In accordance with their viewpoint, a political management is within the palms of the Muslim group as such. Nonetheless, as a matter of truth, the spiritual and political energy in Islam was by no means once more united right into a political group after the demise of the fourth caliph.
Alevism in Islam
Alevi folks imagine in a single God, Allah, and, subsequently, Alevism, as a type of Islam, is a monotheistic faith. Like all different Muslims, the Alevis perceive that God is in every part round in nature. It is very important discover that there are these Alevis who imagine in good and unhealthy spirits (and form of angels), and, subsequently, they usually observe superstition with a purpose to profit from good ones and to keep away from hurt from unhealthy ones. For that cause, for a lot of Muslims, Alevism isn’t an actual Islam as it’s extra a type of paganism imbued with Christianity. Nonetheless, a majority of Alevis don’t imagine in these supernatural beings saying that it’s an expression of Satanism.
The essence of Alevism is in the truth that Alevis imagine that based on the unique textual content of the Quran, Ali, Muhammad’s cousin, and son-in-law, was to be the Prophet’s successor as God’s vice-regent on earth or caliph. Nonetheless, they declare that the components of the unique Quran associated to Ali had been taken out by his rivals. In accordance with Alevis, the Quran, as a basic holy e-book for all Muslims, ought to be interpreted esoterically. For them, there are a lot deeper non secular truths within the Quran than the strict guidelines and laws that seem on the lateral floor. Nonetheless, most Alevi writers will quote particular person Quranic verses as an enchantment for authority to help their view on a given matter, or to justify a sure Alevi spiritual custom. The Alevis typically promote the studying of the Quranquite within the Turkish language than in Arabic, stressing that it’s of the elemental significance for an individual to know precisely what she or he is studying what isn’t potential if the Quran is learn within the Arabic. Nonetheless, many Alevis don’t learn the Quran or different holy books, nor base their day by day beliefs and practices on them as they think about these historical books to be irrelevant in the present day.
The Alevis are studying three totally different books. If based on their opinion, there may be not a correct data within the Quran, because the Sunnis corrupted the genuine phrases of Muhammad, it’s essential to reveal unique Prophet’s messages by different readings. Subsequently, Alevi believers want to (1.) the Nahjul Balagha, the traditions and sayings of Ali; (2.) the Buyruks, the collections of doctrine and practices of a number of of the 12 imams, particularly Cafer; and (3.) the Vilayetnameler or the Menakıbnameler, books that describe occasions within the lives of nice Alevis reminiscent of Haji Bektash. Aside from these primary books, there are some particular sources to take part within the creation of Alevi theology like poet-musicians Yunus Emre (13−14th century), Kaygusuz Abdal (fifteenth century), and Pir Sultan Abdal (sixteenth century).
The muse of Alevism is within the like to Prophet and Ehlibeyt. Twelve Imams are godlike glorified by the Alevis. Ready for the final Imam’s (Muslim spiritual chief) reappearance, the Shia Muslims established a particular council composed of 12 spiritual students (Ulema) that elect a supreme Imam. As an illustration, Ayatollah (“Holy Man”) Ruhollah Khomeini (1900−1989) loved that standing in Iran. Most Alevis imagine that the twelfth Imam, Muhammed Mehdi, grew up in secret to be saved from those that needed to exterminate the household of Ali. Many Alevis imagine Mehdi continues to be alive and/or he’ll come again to earth at some point. In accordance with Alevis, Ali was Muhammed’s meant successor, and subsequently the primary caliph, however opponents stole this proper from him. Muhammed meant for the management of all Muslims to perpetually stem from his household line (Ehli Beyt) by starting with Ali, Fatima, and their two sons, Hasan and Hüseyin. Ali, Hasan, and Hüseyin are thought-about the primary three Imams, and the opposite 9 of the 12 Imams got here from Hüseyin’s line. Simply to remind ourselves, the names and approximate dates of the delivery and demise of the 12 Imams are:
İmam Ali (599-661)
İmam Hasan (624-670)
İmam Hüseyin (625-680)
İmam Zeynel Abidin (659-713)
İmam Muhammed Bakır (676-734)
İmam Cafer-i Sadık (699-766)
İmam Musa Kâzım (745-799)
İmam Ali Rıza (765-818)
İmam Muhammed Taki (810-835)
İmam Ali Naki (827-868)
İmam Hasan Askeri (846-874)
İmam Muhammed Mehdi (869-941)
For the Alevis, to be a very good individual is an inalienable a part of their life philosophy. It is very important discover that the Alevis are usually not turned to the Black Stone (Kaaba) which is in Mecca within the Sunni Saudi Arabia, and, as it’s identified, the Muslim group’s member is meant to go to it for Hajj a minimum of as soon as within the life. Alevis’ first fasting isn’t in Ramadan, it’s in Muharram and it takes 12 days not, 30 days. The second fasting for them is after the Feast of Sacrifice for 20 days and one other one is the Hizir quick. In Islam, there’s a rule, if an individual has sufficient cash, he/she ought to give to a poor individual a certain amount however the Alevis want to donate cash to Alevi organizations however to not the people. As they don’t go to Mecca for Hajj, they go to some mausoleums, like of Haji Bektaş, (in Kırşehir), Abdal Musa (in Tekke Village, Elmalı, Antalya), Şahkulu Sultan (in Merdivenköy, İstanbul), Karacaahmet Sultan (in Üsküdar, İstanbul) or Seyit Gazi (in Eskişehir).
Bektashism
Haji Bektash (Bektaş) Wali was a Turkmen who was born in Iran. After graduated, he had moved to Anatolia. He educated a whole lot of college students and he and his college students had served a whole lot of spiritual, financial, social, and martial providers in Ahi Teşkilatı. Haji Bektash began step by step to be widespread among the many Ottoman elite army detachment – the Janissaries. Nonetheless, he was not of the Alevi origin however he adopted the principles of the Alevi believers into his private life. That sect, or a type of Islam, was based within the identify of Haji Bektash Wali whose members depend upon the love of Ali and twelve imams. Bektashism was widespread in Anatolia and the Balkans (particularly in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Albania) and it’s nonetheless alive in the present day.
Over the course of time, Bektashism turned improved by taking some options of previous beliefs of Anatolia and Turkish tradition. Nonetheless, Bektashism is an important a part of Alevism as many guidelines of Bektashism are included in Alevism. For the Alevi believers, the mausoleum of Haji Bektash Wali in Nevşehir in Anatolia is a crucial level of the pilgrimage. Lastly, in Turkiye, Bektashism and Alevism, in truth, can’t be handled as totally different ideas of the Islamic theology.
Issues and Difficulties of Alevis within the Ottoman historical past and Turkiye
When the Ottoman state was established on the finish of the 13th century and in the beginning of the 14th century, it didn’t have sectarian frictions inside Islam. At the moment, Alevis occupied a whole lot of chairs in state establishments. The Janissaries (initially Sultan’s bodyguard) had been members of Bektashism what signifies that even Sultan tolerated in full such approach of the interpretation of the Quran and the early historical past of Islam.
Nonetheless, how the Ottoman state was concerned within the technique of imperialistic transformation by the annexing surrounding provinces and states, Sunnism was getting an increasing number of vital as a result of the Sunni Muslims had been turning into a transparent majority of the Ottoman Sultanate and, subsequently, Sunnism was rather more helpful for the state administration and the system of governing.
The Ottoman state turned on the East concerned into the chain of conflicts with the Safavid Empire (Persia, in the present day Iran, 1502−1722) – a rustic with a transparent majority of these Muslims who expressed Shi’ism that could be a type of Islam similar to Alevism. The Alevi group, who complained to go being extra Sunni within the Ottoman Sultanate, turned sympathizing Safavid Shah İsmail I (1501−1524) and his state because it was primarily based on Alevism. The animosity between the Ottoman Alevis and Ottoman authorities turned extra apparent in 1514 when the Ottoman Sultan Selim I (1512−1520) executed some 40.000 Alevis along with the Kurdish folks whereas going to have a decisive Battle of Chaldiran (August 23rd) in Iran in opposition to Shah Ismail I. Until the top of the Ottoman Sultanate in 1923, Alevis have been oppressed by the authorities because the sectarian believers who weren’t becoming to the official Sunni theology of Islam.
After the top of the Ottoman Empire in 1923, Alevis had been glad within the first years of the brand new Republic of Turkiye which declaratively proclaimed a segregation of the faith from the state what virtually meant that there was no any official state faith within the nation. The Alevi inhabitants of Turkiye supported many of the reforms with a terrific hope that their social standing goes to be improved. Nonetheless, after the primary years of the brand new state, they began to expertise some difficulties as, de facto, a spiritual minority.
The Sixties had been crucial for the Turkish society for a minimum of three causes: (1.) The immigration had began from the agricultural space to the city space following a brand new technique of industrialization; (2.) The immigration overseas largely to West Germany based on the German-Turkish the so-called Gastarbeiter Settlement; and (3.) An additional democratization of political life. As a consequence, in 1966, Alevis had established their very own political social gathering – Birlik Partisi (Unity Get together). In 1969, Alevis as a minority group despatched eight members to the Parliament based on the outcomes of the parliamentary elections. Nonetheless, in 1973, the social gathering had despatched only one member to the Parliament, and eventually, in 1977, the social gathering had misplaced its effectivity. In 1978, in Maraş and in 1980, in Çorum, lots of of Alevis had been killed as a consequence of the battle with the bulk Sunni inhabitants however probably the most infamous Alevi bloodbath occurred in 1993 on July 2nd in Sivas when 35 Alevi intellectuals had been killed in Madimak Resort by a bunch of non secular fundamentalists.
Undoubtedly, the Alevi believers nonetheless are dealing with many issues in Turkiye in the present day in reference to a freedom of non secular expression and the popularity as a separate cultural group. For instance, the spiritual curriculum doesn’t have any details about Alevism however quite solely on Sunnism what signifies that Alevism isn’t studied on the common foundation in Turkiye. Alevism is deeply ignored by Turkiye’s administration, for example, by the Presidency of Spiritual Affairs (est. 1924) that’s an establishment coping with the spiritual questions and issues however in observe, it’s working based on the principles of a Sunni Islam.
Nonetheless, however, there are and a few enhancements of Alevi cultural life as, for example, many foundations and different civic public intuitions are opened to help it. Nonetheless, Alevis, like Kurds, are usually not acknowledged as a separate ethnocultural or spiritual group in Turkiye as a result of Turkish understanding of a nation (millet) that’s inherited from the Ottoman Sultanate based on which, all Muslims in Turkiye are handled as ethnolinguistic Turks. The scenario will be modified as Turkiye is searching for the EU’s membership and, subsequently, sure EU’s necessities should be accepted amongst others and granting minority rights for Alevis and Kurds.
Conclusions
Alevism is a sect of Islam, and it exhibits many widespread factors with Shi’ism. Nonetheless, we can’t say that it is part of Shi’ism as a complete. Alevi tradition has a wealthy heritage in poems and musicians due to their worship fashion. In Anatolia, Bektashism is normally related with Alevism.
The Alevi folks had been residing within the Ottoman Sultanate and its successor the Republic of Turkiye normally with the troubles as they with their faith didn’t match to the official (Sunni) expression of Islam.
Right this moment, Alevis in Turkiye are combating to be revered as a separate religious-cultural group who can freely exhibit their peculiar lifestyle. As a matter of truth, the Alevi folks couldn’t specific freely themselves for the centuries together with and present-day Turkiye which ought to be taught to observe each minority rights and democracy.
Lastly, if Turkiye desires to hitch the EU, certainly, it has to supply a most of required requirements of safety of all form of minorities together with and religious-cultural ones. That may be an opportunity for the Alevi folks in Turkiye to enhance their standing throughout the society.
© Vladislav B. Sotirovic 2024
Private disclaimer: The creator writes for this publication in a personal capability which is unrepresentative of anybody or any group apart from his personal private views. Nothing written by the creator ought to ever be conflated with the editorial views or official positions of every other media outlet or establishment.
